1. Pamir ice cores could provide answers to the loss of glaciers
GS PAPER I-Geography
Context :Japanese and international scientists drilled unique ice cores in Tajikistan’s Pamir–Karakoram region.
- These cores may explain why local glaciers have resisted, even reversed, melting while others worldwide shrink rapidly.
What are ice cores?
- Cylindrical sections of ice drilled from glaciers or ice sheets, preserving snow and atmospheric layers.
- They act as natural climate archives, storing physical and chemical evidence of past environments.
Where are these ice cores from?
- Drilled on the Kon‑Chukurbashhi ice cap in Tajikistan’s Pamir Mountains.
- Site lies in the Pamir–Karakoram high‑mountain system of Central–South Asia.
Pamir–Karakoram anomaly
- It is the only major mountain region where many glaciers have remained stable or even grown recently.
- This contrasts with widespread glacier retreat in the Himalaya and globally, puzzling scientists.
What scientists are trying to find
- Mechanisms behind increased glacier mass or stability in this region.
- How precipitation, temperature, and atmospheric conditions changed over the last century and beyond.
- Whether insights can help protect or even revive shrinking glaciers elsewhere.
Details of the ice‑core drilling
- Team drilled two columns, each about 105 m long, from the glacier.
- One core is stored in an Antarctic underground sanctuary for preservation.
- The other is kept at low‑temperature laboratories in Japan for detailed analysis.
What information ice cores contain – key features
- Layered structure recording annual or seasonal snowfall over millennia.
- Variations in density, grain size, and crystal structure of ice layers.
- Trapped air bubbles holding ancient atmospheric gases.
- Chemical traces such as sulphate ions, dust, and volcanic ash layers.
- Isotopes of water (like oxygen isotopes) that reflect past temperatures.
- Brittle or cracked layers indicating refreezing or melt events.
What the ice cores indicate (with timescales)
| Ice‑core signal / feature | What it indicates | Approximate timescale of information |
| Clear ice layer | Past melt period followed by refreezing | Years–centuries back |
| Low‑density snow‑like layer | Periods of heavy snowfall/precipitation | Seasonal–annual resolution |
| Brittle, cracked layers | Snowfall on partially melted ice; melt–refreeze cycles | Years–decades |
| Sulphate or volcanic ash layers | Timing of volcanic eruptions; atmospheric circulation changes | Decades–thousands of years |
| Water‑isotope ratios in layers | Past air temperatures and moisture sources | Hundreds–tens of thousands of years |
| Deepest ice with ancient snow | Climate and precipitation when that snow originally fell | Up to ~10,000 years or more at this site |
Why this matters for India and the world
For India and region
- Karakoram–Pamir glaciers feed major rivers that influence water availability downstream.
- Understanding the anomaly refines projections of Asian water security under climate change.
- Insights may improve models for Himalayan glacier response critical for Indian planning.
For the world
- Provides a rare counter‑example to global glacier retreat, testing climate models.
- Helps reconstruct long‑term climate variability, including past warm spells and wet periods.
- Offers clues on how precipitation patterns and aerosols affect glacier health.
- Better knowledge can inform global adaptation strategies and glacier‑protection policies.
2. Cyclone -II Military exercise
GS PAPER III-Science and technology
Context :Indian Army has sent a 45‑member contingent, mainly from a Mechanised Infantry Regiment, to UAE for Desert Cyclone‑II.
- UAE Land Forces’ 53 Mechanised Infantry Battalion is participating with a similar strength at Abu Dhabi from 18–30 December.
Background of the news
- First Desert Cyclone held earlier to start structured Army-to-Army drills.
- Follows rapid growth in India–UAE ties: trade, energy, diaspora, security.
- Comes after signing of comprehensive strategic partnership and defence MoUs.
What is a joint military exercise?
- Planned training where armed forces of two/more countries practice together.
- Includes drills, simulations, field operations under a common scenario.
- Aims to exchange tactics, build trust, and improve combined warfighting ability.
Aim of Desert Cyclone–II (primary objectives)
- Enhance interoperability between Indian Army and UAE Land Forces.
- Strengthen defence cooperation and mutual trust.
- Practice mechanised warfare in desert terrain.
- Improve sub‑unit level tactics, communication and coordination.
- Share experiences from UN peacekeeping and counter‑terror roles.
What is interoperability?
- Ability of forces of different nations to operate together effectively.
- Includes common or compatible procedures, communication and logistics.
- Ensures units can plan, move, fight and support each other seamlessly.
Why mechanised infantry is used?
- Mechanised infantry fights using armoured vehicles plus infantry.
- Best suited for high‑mobility, high‑tempo desert operations.
- Allows practice of armour–infantry cooperation relevant to both armies.
- Reflects India’s strength in Mechanised Infantry Regiment expertise.
Strategic importance of India–UAE defence cooperation
- UAE is key player in West Asia and Gulf security architecture.
- Cooperation protects sea lanes, energy supplies and trade routes.
- Helps counter terrorism, extremism and illicit trafficking.
- Supports maritime security in Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf.
- Deepens India’s presence near Strait of Hormuz, Red Sea approaches.
- Complements economic ties: CEPA, investments, remittances, diaspora.
Why Desert Cyclone matters for India
- Builds credible land-force partnership beyond usual naval focus in Gulf.
- Gives Indian Army experience in hot, arid, foreign desert conditions.
- Signals India’s role as security partner, not just economic actor.
- Enhances defence industry prospects via showcasing Indian equipment.
- Adds to network of exercises (with US, France, Oman, etc.) in region.
- Supports India’s Act West policy and strategic balancing in West Asia
3. Navy commissions second MH-60R copter Squadron,the Ospreys,at INS Hansa
GS paper III-science and technology
Context :Second MH-60R squadron INAS 335 ‘Ospreys’ commissioned on 17 December 2025.
- Ceremony held at INS Hansa, Goa, by CNS Admiral Dinesh K Tripathi.
- Follows first MH-60R squadron raised at Kochi in March 2024.
- Aligns with 75th anniversary of the Fleet Air Arm of the Indian Navy.
What is MH‑60R Seahawk
- Multi‑role maritime helicopter built by Lockheed Martin/Sikorsky.
- ‘Romeo’ naval variant of the UH‑60 Black Hawk family.
- Designed for all‑weather, day‑night operations at sea.
- Optimised for anti‑submarine warfare (ASW) and anti‑surface warfare (ASuW).
- Part of India’s 24‑helicopter acquisition contract signed in 2020.
Why induction is important for India
- Replaces obsolescent Sea King helicopters inducted in the 1970s.
- Greatly improves ASW reach against modern submarines in IOR.
- Enhances long‑range maritime surveillance and targeting capability.
- Strengthens carrier and frontline warship groups on both coasts.
- Demonstrated effectiveness in major exercises like TROPEX‑25.
Key features of MH‑60R
- Multi‑mode radar for sea‑surface and limited air search.
- Dipping sonar and expendable sonobuoys to detect submarines.
- Weapons include Hellfire missiles, Mk‑54 torpedoes and rockets.
- Folding rotors and tail to operate from frigates and destroyers.
- Multi‑role: ASW, ASuW, SAR, MEDEVAC, and vertical replenishment.
What makes its technology advanced
- Integrated mission system fusing radar, sonar and ESM data.
- Modern electronic‑warfare and self‑protection suite.
- Digital magnetic anomaly detection aids sub‑surface tracking.
- Common glass‑cockpit avionics enabling quick role change.
- High‑end sensors create a real‑time “tactical picture” over sea.
Strategic context: why ASW matters now
- Increasing Chinese submarine patrols and presence in Indian Ocean.
- Pakistan acquiring advanced Hangor‑class submarines from China.
- Underwater threats can target shipping and critical sea lanes.
- India must protect energy imports and trade‑dependent economy.
- Strong ASW capability adds deterrence in a contested maritime region.
Maintenance and logistics significance
- New five‑year US–India sustainment package worth about $946 million.
- Provides spares, training, and technical support for the fleet.
- Creates maintenance and repair infrastructure within India.
- Aims to keep high mission‑availability of all 24 MH‑60Rs.
- Supports long‑term indigenisation and operational self‑reliance.
4. How is the Aravalli range to be protected ?
GS paper I-Geography
CONTEXT :Supreme Court accepted a uniform, elevation‑based definition of Aravalli Hills (Nov 2025).
- Court paused fresh mining leases in Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
- Directed preparation of a Management Plan for Sustainable Mining (MPSM).
- Environmentalists argue the new definition could dilute existing protections.
- Debate continues on ecological impacts and conditions for mining resumption.
Why Aravalli Hills are important
- Among the world’s oldest fold mountains, nearly two billion years old.
- Act as a natural barrier against eastward spread of the Thar Desert.
- Provide habitats, wildlife corridors, and biodiversity refuges.
- Help recharge groundwater aquifers in semi‑arid north‑west India.
- Moderate local climate, cut dust storms, and support NCR air quality.
Economic importance vs ecological degradation
- Range holds marble, granite, copper, zinc, and other minerals.
- Mining generates jobs, state revenues, and construction materials.
- Unregulated and illegal mining has flattened hills and scarred land.
- Ecological damage has worsened groundwater depletion and erosion.
- Need is for strictly sustainable mining to avoid irreversible loss.
International obligations
- India is party to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
- Obliged to protect fragile landscapes like Aravalli from desertification.
- Requires integrated land, water, and vegetation conservation strategies.
- Aravalli Green Wall Project furthers UNCCD’s restoration objectives.
- Supports global efforts to curb drought risk and land degradation.
Supreme Court intervention: key timeline
- 2009: Blanket mining ban in parts of Faridabad, Gurugram, and Mewat.
- May 2024: Court halted fresh leases; ordered a uniform definition study.
- Oct 2025: Expert committee submitted elevation‑based definition.
- Nov 2025: Court accepted definition; banned new leases till MPSM ready.
- Ongoing: Detailed mapping and sustainable mining framework under way.
Central Empowered Committee recommendations
- Undertake scientific mapping of the entire Aravalli system.
- Conduct macro‑level environmental impact assessment of mining.
- Declare strict no‑mining zones in highly sensitive habitats.
- Disallow new leases or renewals until assessments are completed.
- Cover protected forests, wildlife areas, and aquifer recharge zones.
Need for a uniform definition
- States earlier used differing criteria to mark Aravalli formations.
- Inconsistencies enabled dispute and illegal mining in “grey” areas.
- Haryana had no clear definition, leaving lower hills vulnerable.
- Loopholes permitted quarrying in ecologically crucial low‑relief areas.
- Single definition enables consistent protection and enforcement.
Supreme Court committee definition
- “Aravalli hill”: landform ≥100 m above surrounding local relief.
- Includes main hill mass, slopes, hillocks, and related features.
- “Aravalli range”: cluster of two or more such hills within 500 m.
- Uses topographical benchmarks to standardize identification.
- Definition to guide notified districts across affected states.
Other key Supreme Court directions
- Prepare MPSM with clearly demarcated no‑mining and regulated zones.
- Assess cumulative impacts and ecological carrying capacity of areas.
- Map critical habitats, wildlife corridors, and restoration priorities.
- Allow existing legal mines to operate under stricter safeguards.
- Ensure continuity and structural integrity of the hill system.
Why the Court avoided a total mining ban
- Absolute prohibition risks pushing mining into illegal, mafia‑driven channels.
- Recognizes need for strategic minerals and construction inputs.
- Seeks regulated, post‑assessment mining in non‑core stretches.
- Tries to balance environmental protection with development needs.
- Follows judicial practice of avoiding over‑broad, counter‑productive bans.
5. Why have Thailand -Cambodia border clashes flared up again?
GS paper II-IR
Context :Thailand carried out airstrikes on Cambodian positions on 8 December 2025.
- At least 15 Thai soldiers and dozens of Cambodian personnel have been killed.
- A U.S.-brokered ceasefire collapsed within days of being announced.
- Fears are rising that the limited clashes could escalate into a wider war.
The story so far (2025 timeline)
- May: Border skirmish killed a Cambodian soldier; both sides rushed reinforcements.
- July: Five days of heavy artillery and rocket exchanges; civilians evacuated.
- 8 December: Thai airstrikes hit Cambodian military sites near the disputed area.
- 12 December: President Trump telephoned both leaders, pressing for a ceasefire.
- Both sides pledged to halt fire, but Thailand insists operations continue until “safe.”
Why the border is contested
- The 817‑km boundary was never fully demarcated after French‑era mapping (1904‑1907).
- Core dispute centres on the 11th‑century Hindu temple of Preah Vihear.
- The International Court of Justice (1962, reaffirmed 2013) awarded the temple to Cambodia.
- Thailand controls much of the surrounding high ground and wants sovereignty over it.
- Temple has become a symbol of nationalism and historical pride in both states.
U.S. role and ceasefire attempts
- October 2025: U.S. mediated talks in Kuala Lumpur leading to a troop‑pullback deal.
- The agreement included “no shooting” and phased withdrawal from contested zones.
- November: Thailand suspended its participation, citing Cambodian “provocations.”
- 7–8 December: Trump again called both prime ministers, threatening tariffs on exports.
- A new ceasefire was announced but collapsed within four days amid renewed firing.
Track record of mediation
- 2008–2011: ASEAN and Indonesia tried to mediate but could not prevent earlier war.
- 2011: ICJ ordered a demilitarised zone; Thailand resisted the presence of observers.
- July 2025: Fresh third‑party mediation failed to stop artillery exchanges.
- October 2025: U.S.‑backed truce held for only about a month.
- Each side accuses the other of violating ceasefire terms and firing first.
Why this conflict matters
- Risk of full‑scale war between two ASEAN members could destabilise Southeast Asia.
- Fighting threatens civilian lives, border trade, and tourism around heritage sites.
- Escalation could draw in external powers and strain ASEAN’s unity and credibility.
Way forward
- Verified and phased troop withdrawal from the immediate disputed zone.
- Joint de‑mining of border minefields to build trust and protect civilians.
- Establishment of a direct military hotline between local commanders.
- Resumption of bilateral talks; Thailand prefers solutions without heavy third‑party role.
- UNESCO assistance to secure Preah Vihear as a demilitarised heritage site.
- Regular meetings of a joint border commission to update maps and settle remaining claims.
6. RS passes Bill for 100% FDI in insurance sector
GS PAPER :ECONOMY
Context: Rajya Sabha cleared the Sabka Bima Sabki Raksha (Amendment of Insurance Laws) Bill on 17 December 2025.
- Lok Sabha had passed the Bill a day earlier amid opposition protests.
- The reform permits up to 100% foreign direct investment in insurance companies.
- A separate Repealing and Amending Bill scrapping 71 obsolete laws was also passed.
Earlier position on FDI in insurance
- From 2000, FDI in insurance was capped at 26% of paid‑up equity.
- The cap rose to 49% in 2015 as part of gradual liberalisation.
- It was further increased to 74% in 2021, with control to remain with Indians.
- Foreign insurers usually had to enter via joint ventures with Indian partners.
Key provisions of the new Bill
- Raises the FDI cap in insurance companies from 74% to 100%.
- Amends the Insurance Act 1938, LIC Act 1956 and IRDAI Act 1999.
- Allows full foreign ownership without a mandatory Indian JV partner.
- Permits mergers and corporate restructuring with some non‑insurance entities.
- Makes compliance with the Digital Personal Data Protection Act compulsory.
- Requires at least one key managerial person (Chairman/MD/CEO) to be an Indian citizen.
Government’s justification
- Supports the goal of “Insurance for All by 2047” by boosting penetration.
- Seeks larger global capital inflows and technical expertise into the sector.
- Eases entry for firms that struggled to find suitable Indian partners earlier.
- Expects more competition to lower premiums and improve product quality.
- Points out that employment rose sharply after past FDI hikes in insurance.
- Claims stronger regulation and customer‑protection norms will remain in place.
Opposition concerns and criticism
- Argues the reform favours foreign insurers over public sector entities like LIC.
- Flags data‑privacy risks from foreign access to sensitive customer information.
- Warns of profit repatriation and possible weakening of domestic players.
- Demanded the Bill be sent to a Select Committee for deeper scrutiny.
- Fears job losses and long‑term undermining of public financial sovereignty.
Repealing and Amending Bill – main points
- Repeals 71 obsolete laws, many colonial‑era or redundant amendment Acts.
- Examples include the Indian Tramways Act 1886 and Levy Sugar Price Equalisation Fund Act 1976.
- Amends four existing laws to modernise terminology and correct drafting errors.
- Removes provisions seen as discriminatory, such as community‑specific probate rules.
- Continues the drive since 2014 to clear the statute book of dead‑letter laws.
