1. Study reveals rare defence traits in Indian frogs
GS PAPPER III-Environment and Ecology
Context: Delhi University scientists, led by S.D. Biju, documented rare anti-predator behaviors in two frog species for the first time in India.
- Apatani horned toad emits distress calls and bites attackers, a rarely seen defense in Indian frogs.
- Bicoloured frog extends its limbs, raising its body to appear larger when threatened, a similarly unusual behavior.
- These are the first documented cases of biting and body-raising defenses among India’s 419 frog species.
The Two Frog Species
Apatani Horned Toad (Xenophrys apatani)
- Habitat: Nocturnal, leaf-litter dweller in Tale Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh.
- Size & Family: ~2 inches; Megophryidae; named after Apatani tribe.
- Discovery: New species in 2024; previously misidentified as X. maosonensis.
- Defense: Daytime camouflage; shrieks and bites when threatened.
- Significance: First biting record in Indian Xenophrys; reveals ecological gaps.
Bicoloured Frog (Clinotarsus curtipes)
- Habitat: Diurnal, forest floor in Kerala’s Western Ghats; stream-breeder.
- Appearance: Brown-yellow bicolor; Dicroglossidae family.
- Defense: Arches body upward, extends limbs to appear larger.
- Observation: First natural body-raising; confirmed via field and experiments.
- Significance: Adds to known fighting behaviors; new anti-predator tactic.
roader Scientific Context
- Reveals substantial gaps in our knowledge of amphibian behavior, especially in biodiverse countries like India.
- Highlights the value of field-based research in uncovering subtle or rare evolutionary adaptations.
- Underscores the need for further studies to better understand natural history and species survival mechanisms.
Why it Matters for Science and Conservation
- Documentation of rare defenses can improve species protection strategies and conservation policy.
- Draws attention to unique regional biodiversity in urgent need of further study and protection.
- Demonstrates the significance of investigating lesser-known species and encourages comprehensive behavioral research.
2. An amended constitution Bill, its contentious issues
GS PAPER II: Indian Polity and Governance
Why in News
- The Central Government introduced this amendment Bill to modify Article 75, Article 164, and Article 239AA in relation to the Council of Ministers, State Council of Ministers, and administrative provisions.
- It addresses issues related to detention of ministers for up to 30 consecutive days, bail provisions, and conditions for removal of ministers from office.
Why This Bill?
- Constitutional Gap: No provision for removing PM/CM/Ministers arrested on serious charges; allows governance from jail.
- Public Anger: Addresses voter outrage over criminalized politics; ~30% MPs/MLAs face serious cases.
- Ethical Governance: Ensures constitutional morality; prevents undertrials from holding office amid probes.
- Judicial Pressure: SC criticisms (e.g., Kejriwal bail) on arbitrary arrests under PMLA/ED push for accountability.
- Modi Agenda: Part of anti-corruption reforms; closes loopholes exploited in state politics.
| Key Provisions of the Bill | ||||||||||||
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Rationale Behind Bill
- Accountability Boost: Ends “governing from jail” to uphold public trust in leadership.
- Anti-Corruption Tool: Targets serious crimes (e.g., money laundering, economic offences).
- Moral Imperative: Aligns with constitutional morality; SC in Arnab Goswami stressed arrest justification.
- Precedent Prevention: Avoids repeats like Balaji dismissal/reinstatement controversies.
- Democratic Integrity: Ensures clean politics; responds to ~30% elected reps with criminal antecedents.
Contentious Issues Raised by Opposition
- Arbitrary Arrests: Discretionary police power enables targeted harassment of rivals (Al Jazeera).
- Presumption of Guilt: Punishes on arrest, not conviction; violates “innocent till proven guilty” (NDTV).
- Agency Misuse: Central probes (ED/CBI) could destabilize opposition-led states (TMC’s Mamata).
- Bail Denial Risk: 30-day detention threshold ignores judicial delays in high-profile cases.
- Federal Overreach: Undermines state autonomy; seen as BJP tool for “dictatorship” (AIMIM’s Owaisi).
Important Judicial Reference Cases and Principles
| Case | Principle |
| Joginder Kumar v. State of U.P. (1994) | Arrest not automatic; must justify need; existence of power ≠ justification for exercise. |
| DK Basu v. State of W.B. (1997) | 11 guidelines for arrests (e.g., inform relative, medical exam); protects Art 21 rights against custodial torture. |
| CBI v. Anupam J. Kulkarni (1992) | Police custody limited to first 15 days post-arrest; beyond that, only judicial custody. |
| Arnab Ranjan Goswami v. Union of India (2020) | Balance enforcement with harassment prevention; arrest as “ruse” violates liberty. |
| Satender Kumar Antil v. CBI (2022) | Bail default for undertrials after half max sentence; curb misuse of arrest in economic offences. |
Detention for 30 Consecutive Days – Bail Problem
- Threshold Issue: Triggers removal if no bail in 30 days; ignores probe delays in serious cases.
- Default Bail Clash: Under BNSS S.480, default bail after 60/90 days; Bill’s 30-day mark preempts it for Ministers.
- Special Status Complication: Ministers face heightened scrutiny; bail hearings politicized, delaying relief.
- Judicial Overload: Courts backlog (4.4 cr cases) hinders timely bail; risks automatic ouster.
- Custody Interpretation: “Consecutive” detention under BNSS allows staggered police custody, complicating bail pleas.
Possible Misuse – Core Concerns
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Constitutional and Ethical Dimensions
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Expert Viewpoints
- Prof. Upendra Baxi (Legal Scholar): Bill risks “constitutional authoritarianism”; arrest discretion enables vendetta politics.
- D. Nagasaila (Madras HC Advocate): Retrograde step; extended BNSS custody invites custodial violence (The Hindu).
- V. Suresh (PUCL Gen Secy): Dangerous provision; lifts bar on repeated police remand, endangering rights.
- Justice Ujjal Bhuyan (SC Judge, Kejriwal bail): Power to arrest ≠ need; Bill ignores this, promotes harassment.
- PRS Legislative Research: Positive for accountability but needs safeguards against misuse; recommends JPC scrutiny.
3. Norway- India maritime relations
General Studies Paper II (Governance, International Relations, and Social Justice) ,
General Studies Paper III (Environment, Science & Technology, and Economic Development).
Context: India and Norway are strengthening their maritime partnership focused on sustainable and green maritime development.
- Collaboration discussed at India Maritime Week 2025 and through bilateral dialogues to advance maritime green technologies, shipping, and training.
Why This Matters
- Economic Driver: Maritime handles 95% India’s trade; Norway-India collab unlocks $1T sector potential by 2047.
- Green Transition: Combats shipping emissions (3% global CO2); fosters low-carbon fuels, tech transfer.
- Strategic Security: Enhances Indo-Pacific stability; first maritime security dialogue (Sep 2025) counters piracy, trafficking.
- Job Creation: TEPA promises $100B investment, 1M jobs; boosts seafarer training, gender inclusion.
- Bilateral Growth: Trade doubled in 10 years; positions India as shipbuilding hub, Norway as tech leader.
Background
- Historical Ties: Maritime trade since 1600s; modern coop from 2010 MoU on seafarer training, polar navigation.
- Key Milestones: 7th JWG (2019) on green ships; Green Voyage 2050 project for low-emission demos.
- Recent Momentum: INMARCO (2022) green conclave; Norway supports Maritime ShEO for women in sector.
- Aid to Partnership: Evolved from Norwegian aid to strategic blue economy focus post-2016 Panorama strategy.
- Shared Priorities: Oceans, climate, research; Norway as NATO bridge for India’s Arctic/Indo-Pacific goals.
India-Norway Maritime Strength
| Aspect | Norway | India |
| Shipbuilding Expertise | Advanced cluster: designers, yards; leads in zero-emission vessels like Yara Birkeland. | Growing hub: Cochin Shipyard deliveries to Wilson ASA; Alang recycles 30% global ships. |
| Green Tech Innovation | 60+ electric/hybrid ferries; ammonia fuel cells (Viking Energy cuts 30% emissions). | Green Voyage 2050 participant; Harit Sagar guidelines for sustainable recycling. |
| Fleet & Trade Role | World’s 7th largest fleet; 90% emissions cut ambition by 2050 via grants like Enova. | 95% trade by sea; Sagarmala: 840 projects worth ₹5.8L cr for port modernization. |
| Seafarer Pool | Expertise in polar/cyber navigation; trains via public-private models. | Large skilled workforce; seeks Norway’s training in green fuels, offshore wind. |
| Blue Economy Focus | Leader in aquaculture, renewables; Longship CCS stores 1.5M tons CO2/year. | Targets $100B investment via TEPA; inland waterways up from 3 to 29 operational. |
Shared Framework and Institutions
- a) Indian-Norway Ocean Dialogue: Launched 2025; annual forum on blue economy, sustainable fisheries, ocean research.
- Key Outcomes: Exchanges on UNCLOS, counter-smuggling; aligns with India’s Indo-Pacific strategy.
- b) India-EFTA TEPA: Signed Mar 2024, effective Oct 2025; covers goods, services, investment in maritime.
- Maritime Angle: Duty-free industrial/marine products; boosts shipbuilding, green tech under Ch. 2 (Trade in Goods).
- Strategic Cooperation: Joint working group (since 2019); facilitates on-board training for seafarers.
- Broader Ties: 3rd India-Nordic Summit (upcoming Oslo); integrates with QUAD Ports of Future conference.
Blue Economy in Action
- Green Shipping: Norway shares Green Shipping Programme; India pilots corridors with Singapore/Rotterdam.
- Joint Demos: Low-emission routes via TEPA; focus on hydrogen/ammonia bunkering.
- Shipping & Recycling: Sustainable practices at Alang yard; Norway avoids prolonging bans on Indian recycling.
- Seafarer Cooperation: On-board training agreements; polar navigation, cybersecurity exchanges.
- Women in Maritime: Norway backs SheEO Conference; promotes gender diversity via Saagar Mein Samman.
Norway’s Green Maritime Model
| Focus Area | Norwegian Example |
| Electric Ferries | MF Ampere (2015): First fully electric; 60+ by 2021, cuts emissions via Enova grants. |
| Ammonia/Hydrogen Fuels | Viking Energy: 30% emission cut with ammonia cell; MAN’s two-stroke engine for 90% reduction. |
| Zero-Emission Corridors | ASKO sea drones: Autonomous electric routes Oslofjord; Green Voyage 2050 pilots. |
| Carbon Capture | Longship project: Seabed storage 1.5M tons CO2/year; operational 2024. |
| Policy Incentives | NOx Fund, biofuel quotas; procurement mandates low-emission for public vessels. |
India’s Maritime Vision
- Maritime Vision 2030: 10-year blueprint; ₹3-3.5L cr investment in ports, shipping, waterways.
- Key Pillars: Capacity augmentation; global green shipbuilding hub by 2030.
- Amrit Kaal Vision 2047: Expands MIV; ₹80L cr for top-tier shipbuilding, net-zero by 2070.
- Targets: 30% emission cut/ton cargo by 2030; 70% by 2047 via green hydrogen, methanol vessels.
- 11 Themes: Port modernization, inland transport, skill dev; 150+ consultations for action points.
Challenges and Way Forward
| Challenges | Way Forward |
| Emission Surge | Accelerate green corridors; adopt Norway’s fuel tech via TEPA investments. |
| Infrastructure Gaps | PPP models like Sagarmala; joint ventures for mega ports, electrification. |
| Skill Shortages | Training exchanges; scale Maritime ShEO for 1M jobs, gender inclusion. |
| Regulatory Hurdles | Harmonize UNCLOS rules; IMO-aligned policies for biofuels, CCS. |
| Investment Needs | $100B TEPA infusion; public grants like Enova for first-mover pilots. |
4. What is China’s complaint against India at WTO?
General Studies Paper 3 (Economy, International Trade) and General Studies Paper 2 (International Relations)
Context – China has filed a formal complaint against India at the World Trade Organization (WTO) over India’s Production Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes for batteries, automobiles, and electric vehicles (EVs).
- China alleges these schemes discriminate
against imports and violate WTO rules by requiring domestic value addition.
What is the PLI Scheme?
- Launched in 2020, PLI aims to boost domestic manufacturing and Atmanirbhar Bharat.
- Covers 14 sectors with ₹1.97 lakh crore outlay.
- Offers 4-6% cashback incentives on incremental sales.
- Open to domestic and multinational companies; localization boosts rewards.
- Has generated ₹16.5 trillion in sales by mid-2025, attracting major investments.
- Boosts EV and auto sector to reduce imports, especially from China.
China’s Objections to Three PLI Schemes
| PLI Scheme | Objective | Domestic Value Addition Requirement |
| ACC Battery Storage | Promote domestic battery manufacturing for EVs | ≥50% Domestic Value Addition (DVA) by Year 5 |
| Automobile and Auto Components | Enhance auto sector competitiveness | 50% Localization by Year 5 |
| Electric Passenger Cars Promotion | Attract global EV makers | 25% initial DVA, scaling to 50%; local assembly required |
China’s Arguments
- PLI discriminates against imports, violating national treatment rules (GATT Article III).
- Domestic Value Addition requirements act as prohibited subsidies, forcing replacement of Chinese components.
- Creates market access barriers, impacting $113 billion bilateral trade.
- Violates WTO’s Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM) Agreement by tying subsidies to local content.
- Sees India’s PLI as strategic to challenge China’s EV dominance.
China’s WTO Complaint
- Core allegation: India’s PLI schemes violate WTO rules by discriminating against Chinese goods through localization mandates.
- Affects China’s EV export surge and seeks level playing field for supply chains.
- PLI viewed as “import substitution subsidy,” reminiscent of past disputes.
WTO Rules on Subsidies
- SCM Agreement prohibits subsidies contingent on use of domestic products.
- Export-contingent or import-substitution subsidies are illegal.
- GATT Article III mandates national treatment, disallowing less favorable treatment to imports.
- TRIMs Agreement bans local content requirements linked to investment incentives.
India’s Likely Defence
- PLI is open to all firms investing in India, with no nationality bias.
- Incentives are production-linked, not contingent on export or ownership status.
- India qualifies for special flexibilities as a developing country under WTO rules.
- Cites precedents where similar local content policies were upheld.
- PLI reduces import dependence amid global supply chain shifts.
WTO Dispute Process
| Step | Description |
| Consultations | 60-day bilateral talks to amicably resolve dispute; most cases settle here |
| Panel Request | If unresolved, China can request WTO panel to adjudicate |
| Panel Report | Findings issued; parties can appeal; AB is currently non-functional |
| Implementation | Losing party given time to comply; retaliation permitted if not |
| Compliance Review | WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) monitors ongoing compliance |
Wider Context: Global Industrial Policy Tensions
- US-China trade wars and subsidies in EV and tech sectors echo PLI disputes.
- EU’s Green Deal faces similar local content and subsidy challenges from China.
- Developing countries demand policy space for domestic industrial growth; WTO rules remain in flux.
- Growing “China+1” strategies encourage diversification but raise trade frictions.
- Green industrial policies linked to COP goals are causing tensions over “green protectionism” in $1 trillion EV market.
5. Sugar sector concerned over reduction in ethanol sourcing
General Studies Paper III (GS-3) – Economy & Agriculture
Context: India continues as the second-largest global sugar producer (approx. 34 million metric tons in 2024).
- Sugar consumption is rising domestically but moderated by ethanol production increasing as a biofuel.
- Export dynamics fluctuate due to global prices and domestic policies.
- Government policies on ethanol blending targets and export allocations impact the sugar sector.
- The sugar industry supports rural livelihoods and forms a major agro-based sector in India.
Global Position of Sugar Industry (2024)
| Parameter | Data |
| Top Producer | Brazil (45.54 million MT, ~25% global) |
| India’s Rank | 2nd largest producer (~34 million MT) |
| Global Consumption | Projected growth 1.2% annually, 202 Mt by 2034 |
| Ethanol Share | India produces ~21% of global sugarcane-based ethanol |
| Sugar Exports | India exported approx. 0.8 million MT (2024-25) |
India produces about 19% of the world’s sugar and is the largest consumer with estimated domestic consumption around 28.5 million MT in 2024.
Sugar Year (SY) 2024: Consumption, Stocks & Trade
| Parameter | Data (SY 2024) |
| Production | 34 million MT (gross), 32.3 million MT (net after ethanol diversion) |
| Consumption | 28.5 million MT (domestic) |
| Closing Stocks | 9.4 million MT (up from 5.6 million MT last year) |
| Exports | ~0.8 million MT sugar exported |
Domestic consumption outpaces exports as India balances food security with ethanol production commitments.
Ethanol Production and Biofuel Integration
| Aspect | Details |
| Ethanol Production Target | 320 crore liters for first half of 2024 Supply Year |
| Achievement | 224 crore liters supplied by March 2024 |
| Blending Ratio | 11.96% ethanol blending in petrol (EBP) reached |
| Feedstock Shift | Increasing ethanol production from grains (maize) besides sugarcane molasses |
| Policy | Ethanol blending program to reduce crude oil import, support renewable energy |
Ethanol production is vital as India combines sugarcane processing with biofuel goals under government mandates, supporting energy security and farmer incomes.
Geographical Distribution of Sugar Industry in India
| Region | States | Characteristics |
| Northern Zone | Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab | Larger area under sugarcane, less sucrose content, cooler climate |
| Southern Zone | Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh | Tropical climate, higher sucrose content, higher yield per unit area |
South India’s tropical climate favors higher sugar yields. Uttar Pradesh leads in quantity, supporting the largest number of mills and farmers.
Geographical Conditions Required for Sugar Cultivation
| Factor | Ideal Conditions |
| Temperature | 21-27°C (hot and humid climate) |
| Rainfall | 75-100 cm per annum |
| Soil Type | Deep, rich, well-drained loamy soil |
| Climate | Frost-free period, good sunshine |
These conditions favor healthy sugarcane growth and sucrose accumulation.
Importance of Sugar Industry
| Dimension | Contributions |
| Economic | 2nd largest agro-industry in India, employing 5 lakh workers |
| Rural Livelihood | Supports millions of farmers and rural households |
| Energy Security | Ethanol production reduces crude oil import dependence |
| Export | Contributes to foreign exchange through sugar exports |
| Industrial Linkages | Associated industries include distilleries, power generation, and chemicals |
The sugar sector plays a critical role in rural economy, energy, and industrial sectors.
Challenges Faced by the Sugar Industry
| Challenge | Explanation |
| Price Volatility | Global sugar prices fluctuate, impacting export potential |
| Export Parity | International prices often below Indian ex-mill prices |
| Weather Dependency | Crop yields sensitive to monsoon variations and climate change |
| Ethanol vs Sugar | Balancing cane used for sugar and diversion to ethanol |
| High Production Costs | Costs of inputs and labor raise cost of production |
| Stock Management | Managing large stocks due to variable demand and production |
These challenges affect profitability, farmer income, and sector sustainability.
Government Measures and Policies
| Policy | Description |
| Ethanol Blending Program | Mandatory ethanol blending in petrol to reduce fossil fuel usage |
| MSP for Sugarcane | Minimum support price to protect farmer income |
| Export Regulations | Export quotas and allocations to stabilize domestic market |
| Financial Support | Subsidies and soft loans for sugar mills and ethanol plants |
| Production Diversification | Encouragement of co-generation of power and bio-products |
These measures aim to stabilize the sector, improve farmer returns, and support energy security goals.
6. How do cyclones forms and how they are they measured ?
GS-3: Disaster Management (Cyclone forecasting, early warning systems, mitigation)
Context: Cyclone Season Peak: Oct-Nov 2025 marks high activity in Bay of Bengal; recent storms prompt IMD alerts.
- Forecasting Advances: IMD’s improved 5-day track accuracy highlighted amid global climate models.
- Public Awareness: Viral explainers on cyclone science; ties to disaster prep for coastal states.
- Research Push: New satellite data, Hurricane Hunter analogs in India Ocean discussed.
- Climate Link: Rising SSTs fuel intensity; connects to COP30 debates on extreme weather.
How do cyclones form?
- Begins as low-pressure area with thunderstorm clusters over warm oceans.
- Requires SST ≥26.5°C up to 50 m depth for energy supply.
- Warm, moist air rises, condenses, releases latent heat → strengthens system.
- Coriolis force deflects winds: right (N. Hemisphere), left (S. Hemisphere).
- Unstable atmosphere + low wind shear essential for organized circulation.
How can high wind shear disrupt the formation of a cyclone?
- Wind shear = difference in wind speed/direction at upper vs. lower levels.
- High shear tilts storm structure, prevents heat/wind alignment.
- Disrupts rising moist air, stops self-reinforcing convection.
- Weakens or destroys potential cyclone before eyewall forms.
- Common barrier within 5° of equator (weak Coriolis).
What is an eyewall?
- Ring of towering thunderstorms surrounding calm central eye.
- Area of maximum wind speed and heaviest rainfall.
- Air spirals inward at surface, rises rapidly near eye.
- Produces intense winds, storm surge, flash floods.
- Clear eye forms from sinking dry air in center.
How are cyclones classified?
- Primarily by maximum sustained wind speed near center.
- Different basins use varied scales; India follows IMD system.
- IMD Classification (Indian Ocean):
- Depression: 31-49 km/h
- Deep Depression: 50-61 km/h
- Cyclonic Storm: 62-88 km/h
- Severe Cyclonic Storm: 89-118 km/h
- Very Severe: 119-221 km/h
- Super Cyclonic Storm: ≥222 km/h
- North Indian Ocean uses same principle as global standards.
How are cyclones measured?
- Ground-based: Anemometers, met stations, aircraft reconnaissance.
- Remote Sensing: Satellites (infrared for cloud tops, microwave for structure).
- Ocean Buoys: Measure pressure, humidity, wind over remote areas.
- Hurricane Hunters (Atlantic): Fly into storm, drop dropsondes for real-time data.
- Indian Ocean: Relies on satellites, buoys; no routine aircraft missions.
How well are cyclones forecast?
- Forecasting remains complex; uses numerical weather prediction models.
- Accuracy improved with computing power, satellite data assimilation.
- Most agencies predict 3- to 5-day track with reasonable accuracy.
- Intensity forecasting harder due to small-scale processes.
- Initial data errors can cause large deviations in path/intensity.
7. Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS)
CONTEXT: The Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS) was launched on 30 October 2025 in New Delhi as a collaborative initiative of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Ministry of Education, and Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
- The launch event marked the unveiling of a training module and a dedicated MYGS Portal designed to support effective implementation and build teacher and student capacity.
- MYGS aims to promote participatory local governance and democratic engagement among youth through simulated Gram Sabha sessions in schools, aligning with the National Education Policy 2020.
- The program will initially be implemented across more than 1,000 schools, including Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs), Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRSs), and State Government Schools.
About the Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS):
Overview:
- MYGS is a pioneering educational initiative designed to simulate Gram Sabha meetings in schools, providing students first-hand experience of rural self-governance and local democracy.
- It seeks to inculcate democratic values such as accountability, transparency, leadership, and civic responsibility among the youth.
Objectives:
- To encourage youth participation in grassroots democracy.
- To develop leadership and problem-solving skills through role-playing positions like sarpanch, ward member, and village secretary during mock sessions.
- To bridge civic education with practical local governance processes.
- To nurture future citizens dedicated to transparency and participatory governance.
Educational Integration:
- MYGS is integrated under the National Education Policy 2020, aiming to combine curricular learning with experiential education in democratic governance.
Implementation Scale:
- The first phase will cover 1,000+ schools across the country, targeting JNVs, EMRSs, and select state government schools.
- Training of teachers has been conducted to guide students in conducting these simulated sessions effectively.
- Competitive events at regional and national levels will incentivize active participation and learning.
About Gram Sabha
Overview:
- The Gram Sabha is the basic unit of direct democracy enshrined under Article 243(b) of the Constitution of India, comprising all adult village residents registered in the electoral rolls.
Composition and Function:
- It is central to village-level decision-making on development plans, budgets, welfare schemes, and social audits.
- Gram Sabhas ensure Panchayat accountability and public participation in governance.
Meetings and Authority:
- Convened 2 to 4 times annually, organized by the Panchayat Secretary with approval of the Sarpanch.
- Requires quorum of at least 10% of members or 50 villagers.
- No major Panchayat action is valid without the Gram Sabha’s approval.
Purpose and Democratic Essence:
- Gram Sabha enables grassroots self-governance (Swaraj), transparency, and collective decision-making.
- It is fundamental to rural democracy, allowing citizens to directly influence governance and development.
